types of beams based on supports

What are the types of beams based on supports?

Beams are generally horizontal structural members which transfer loads horizontally along their length to the supports where the loads are usually resolved into vertical forces. Beams are used for resisting vertical loads, shear forces and bending moments.

Different types of beams can be classified based on the type of support.

1) Simply supported beam

2) Fixed beam

3) Cantilever beam

4) Over hanging beam

5) Continuous beam

6) Trussed beam

COMMON CONCRETE PROBLEMS AND THEIR PREVENTION:

COMMON CONCRETE PROBLEMS 

AND THEIR PREVENTION:

There are many problems we might be facing during and after concreting. To produce high quality concrete we must take some precautions to avoid those common problems during concreting. In this article, we will discuss on common concrete problems and how to prevent them.

A) BLEEDING:

Bleeding refers to as a tendency of water to appear on the top surface of concrete after finishing. Due to bleeding some measure of water (with sand particles and other cementing materials) appears at the surface of the concrete.

Following precautions should be taken to reduce bleeding in concrete.

1. Design the mix appropriately.

2. Include least water content in the mix.

3. Use greater amount of cement content.

4. Use greater amount of fine particles.

5. Utilize a little measure of air entraining admixture.

B) SEGREGATION:

Segregation means separation of coarse aggregates from the concrete surface due to poor compaction. It is generally seen in the plastic stage of concrete. As a result honeycomb, laitance, scaling, porous layer, bond failure etc. can be formed in concrete. Following precautions should be adopted to prevent segregation in concrete.

1. Design the mix appropriately.

2. Never use excessive water content.

3. Take care of handling, placing, and proper compaction of concrete.

4. Do not allow the concrete to be dropped from more heights.

5. Use air entraining admixture.

6. Keep the formwork to be watertight.

C) LAITANCE:

The appearance of cement-sand particles on the surface of freshly placed concrete is known as laitance. It is mainly occurred due to the bad effect of bleeding and segregation of concrete. The bond between subsequent layers of concrete becomes weaker and as a result, laitance is developed.

Following precautions can be taken to stop the occurrence of laitance in concrete.

1. Clay, dust, silt content etc should be removed before mixing the concrete.

2. Water-cement ratio should be maintained properly.

3. Water should not be sprayed on the concrete surface during finishing work.

4. Use well graded fine aggregates in the mix.

5. Add little amount of water reducing admixture in the concrete mix.

D) SCALING:

Scaling is the physical deterioration of concrete in which the surface layer of concrete broke down, pitted or flaked away. Due to this effect concrete surface becomes worse. Scaling can be prevented by taking same precautions adopted for laitance.

E) PLASTIC SHRINKAGE CRACKS:

When the evaporation rate of water mixed in the concrete is greater than the bleed water of concrete, plastic shrinkage cracks are developed on the surface of the concrete. Basically, this type of cracks occurs in very hot climate.

F) DUSTING:

Dusting can be prevented by taking following precautions.

1. Maintain a suitable water/cement ratio in the concrete.

2. Utilize dust free aggregates in the mix.

3. Guarantee appropriate hydration of concrete.

4. Avoid early surface finishing of concrete.

The choice of the bottom system of wind turbines

The choice of the bottom system of wind turbines is particularly important because their inadequate behavior can affect the functionality of the entire wind farm. however this aspect often gets overlooked or riddled with excessive approximation.

The design of wind turbine foundations provide proper synergy between geological / geotechnical aspects, soil-structure interaction and structural in order to adopt optimized and functional solutions.

The choice between the different foundations of available solutions is a function both of the stresses transmitted by the superstructure of the morphological conditions and, above all, geological - geotechnical site.

How to Build a Swimming Pool

How to Build a Swimming Pool: 12 Steps

Swimming pools are a great addition to a big back yard, creating a great way to spend time together as a family and get in some super fun exercise! It isn't the easiest building project, however. The average cost of a swimming pool, even if you're building it yourself, is about $25,000. Keep in mind that in most cities, you will not be allowed to build the pool yourself as you need to be a certified and licensed builder in order for the pool to be considered up to code. With these things in mind, get started with Step 1 to see what you can expect from the building process.

1. Design the pool.

You'll want to start by designing the pool that you want to build. Will it be round? Square? How deep will it be? What color do you want the pool to be? The more complex the design, the higher the cost.

2. Get a permit.

Get a contractor lined up and apply for a permit with your local city. You might also have to apply with your local home owner's association, as not all neighborhoods allow pools. Your contractor may be able to do both of these things for you, if they are an experienced and qualified service.

Keep in mind that in some areas, pools are taxed extra and you could get in a lot of trouble for failing to register your pool with the city. It can be viewed as tax evasion.

3. Excavate the area.

Rent the necessary construction equipment (usually at least a backhoe) and dig out the area where the pool will go. It is important to have your permit from the city at this point, as you don't want to risk running in to utility lines you didn't know about.

4. Grade the ground.

You'll want to even out the ground as much as possible along what will become the bottom of the pool. This will make building the walls and putting in the floor much easier. There are many ways to grade the ground but if you are using a sloping floor, you'll definitely want someone with experience to do this.

5. Frame the walls.

With the hole excavated and the land graded, you're ready to start putting in the walls. Start by framing the walls with wood and metal rebar. Make sure to keep the walls even and in line with each other.

6. Put in the plumbing.

Get a licensed plumber to come in and add in the necessary plumbing for the pool. You will need to create a supply and filtration system which meets the codes for your area. Only a plumber with pool experience should be hired as an inexperienced one can ruin your pool.

7. Run the electricity.

Get an electrician to run power to your pool if it is needed for lights or the filtration system. This is another time where it is important to hire a professional, as you can imagine what bad wiring plus water leads to.

8. Pour the floor.

With the plumbing and electricity roughed in, you can start building the actual walls and floor. Get a cement truck and pour the floor, grading and smoothing once it is poured. Make sure to pay attention to angle of the floor if making a pool with depth variation.

9. Build the walls.

With the floor in place you can start building the walls. These are often made from cinder block or poured concrete. You will want to discuss the benefits of each with your contractor. Make sure that the walls are constructed with the tops even and at a reasonable level to the surrounding ground.

10. Finish the walls.

Pools need some type of moisture barrier, to keep all of the water from simply leeching out. There are lots of different options so talk to your contractor about what's right for you. The most common options include:

- A basic plastic liner

- A real tile covering

- A plaster coating

- A sprayed plastic coating

11. Fill in the outside.

Fill in the outside area behind the walls of the pool. This filling material will vary depending on where you live. Your contractor should be able to advise on the cheapest vs. safest options.

12. Fill the pool.

With the pool complete, you'll just need to fill it up! Depending on how you had the pool plumbed, you can fill it from your own water supplies or you can have a water supply company come in and fill the pool. Enjoy!

Properties of concrete

Properties of concrete are influenced by many factors mainly due to mix proportion of cement, sand, aggregates and water. Ratio of these materials control the various concrete properties which are discussed below.

Properties of Concrete are:

1) Grades (M20, M25, M30 etc.)

2) Compressive strength

3) Characteristic Strength

4) Tensile strength

5) Durability

6) Creep

7) Shrinkage

8) Unit weight

9) Modular Ratio

10) Poisson’s ratio

1) Grades of concrete:

Concrete is known by its grade which is designated as M15, M20 etc. in which letter M refers to concrete mix and number 15, 20 denotes the specified compressive strength (fck) of 150mm cube at 28 days, expressed in N/mm². Thus, concrete is known by its compressive strength. M20 and M25 are the most common grades of concrete, and higher grades of concrete should be used for severe, very severe and extreme environments.

2) Compressive strength of concrete:

Like load, the strength of the concrete is also a quality which varies considerably for the same concrete mix. Therefore, a single representative value, known as characteristic strength is used.

3) Characteristic strength of concrete:

It is defined as the value of the strength below which not more then 5% of the test results are expected to fall (i.e. there is 95% probability of achieving this value only 5% of not achieving the same)

○ Properties of Concrete

• The characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member is taken as 0.67 times the strength of concrete cube.

• The strength to be taken for the purpose of design is known as design strength and is given by

--》Design strength (fd) = characteristic strength/ partial safety factor for material strength

The value of partial safety factor depends upon the type of material and upon the type of limit state. According to IS code, partial safety factor is taken as 1.5 for concrete and 1.15 for steel.

Design strength of concrete in member = 0.45fck

4) Tensile strength of concrete:

The estimate of flexural tensile strength or the modulus of rupture or the cracking strength of concrete from cube compressive strength is obtained by the relations

fcr = 0.7 fck N/mm²

The tensile strength of concrete in direct tension is obtained experimentally by split cylinder. It varies between 1/8 to 1/12 of cube compressive strength.

5) Creep in concrete:

Creep is defined as the plastic deformation under sustain load. Creep strain depends primarily on the duration of sustained loading. According to the code, the value of the ultimate creep coefficient is taken as 1.6 at 28 days of loading.

6) Shrinkage of Concrete:

The property of diminishing in volume during the process of drying and hardening is termed Shrinkage. It depends mainly on the duration of exposure. If this strain is prevented, it produces tensile stress in the concrete and hence concrete develops cracks.

7) Modular ratio:

Short term modular ratio is the modulus of elasticity of steel to the modulus of elasticity of concrete.

Short term modular ratio = Es / Ec

Es = modulus of elasticity of steel (2×10 5 N/mm²)

Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (5000xSQRT(fck) N/mm²)

As the modulus of elasticity of concrete changes with time, age at loading etc the modular ratio also changes accordingly. Taking into account the effects of creep and shrinkage partially IS code gives the following expression for the long term modular ratio.

Long term modular ratio (m) = 280/ (3fcbc)

Where, fcbc = permissible compressive stress due to bending in concrete in N/mm².

8) Poisson’s ratio:

Poisson’s ratio varies between 0.1 for high strength concrete and 0.2 for weak mixes. It is normally taken as 0.15 for strength design and 0.2 for serviceability criteria.

9) Durability of concrete:

Durability of concrete is its ability to resist its disintegration and decay. One of the chief characteristics influencing durability of concrete is its permeability to increase of water and other potentially deleterious materials.

The desired low permeability in concrete is achieved by having adequate cement, sufficient low water/cement ratio, by ensuring full compaction of concrete and by adequate curing.

10) Unit weight of concrete:

The unit weight of concrete depends on percentage of reinforcement, type of aggregate, amount of voids and varies from 23 to 26KN/m². The unit weight of plain and reinforced concrete as specified by IS:456 are 24 and 25KN/m3 respectively.

Lump Sum Construction Contract and it's advantages, disadvantages

Lump Sum Construction Contract and it's advantages, disadvantages:

In lump sum construction contract contractor bids a single fixed price for all activities in the project scope. This method is particularly used for large construction projects and is a conventional but most popular types of construction contract.

The contractor bears the risks associated with this contract and is responsible for estimating project costs from drawings including overhead and his profit to determine the price of the project.

lump sum construction contract is considered as the most effective means of reducing construction price and is useful when projects and its activities are well defined.

Advantages of Lump Sum Construction Contract

Lump sum construction contract is the most widely accepted contract between the owner and the contractor due to it general predictability, easy management and assured maximum price arrangements.

Advantages of Lump Sum Construction Contract for Owner are as follows:

1. There is certain degree of limitation over owner’s exposure as well as accountability at the time construction since he has already agreed upon a fixed rate.

2. Since the contractor has accepted a fixed price for the construction, the owner is not liable for any over expenditure. This is the most important benefit.

3. It is much simpler to get construction loan with a Lump sum contract as it provides a high degree of certainty as far as cost is concerned.

4. It is much easier to supervise and manage Lump sum contracts.

5. The payments are made after fixed durations and that too based on the amount of work completed unlike the balloon payments in other arrangements.

Advantages of Lump Sum Construction Contract for the Contractor are as follows:There is a greater margin for profit realization for contractors as well as designers.Due to its general reliability, contractors try to enhance quality of production and performance and try to complete work faster.Lump sum contracts offer comparatively easier assessment of soil conditions, bidding prices and pre- construction analysis which makes selection process less tedious.Accounting related to lump sum contracts are low-intensive that diminishes overhead expenses of the contractor and allow for stable cash flow.

Besides above benefits, lump sum construction contract promote better interaction and association between the owner, contractor and designer. The contractors encourage effective project execution to earn better profit margin. The owner is also aware of the expense incurred due to change orders he needs.

Disadvantages of Lump Sum Construction ContractLump sum contracts pose greater risk to contractor.Quantifying changes is a big challenge. Such contracts demand documentation and record keeping of change orders at all stages that further requires more paperwork.Rejection of change order requested by the employer.The building and construction design and plans have to be completed well before beginning the execution of activities.The overall construction completion could take longer than other contractual alternatives.Since the contract is based on fixed price, the contractor may start using sub-standard means and methods and products. In such a case, the owner should specify building materials well in advance.Lump-sum contracts usually end up with higher fixed price to cover unforeseen circumstances. Owners are responsible for unpredicted conditions which are beyond the control of either party.Matters of Disputes in Lump Sum Construction Contract

Even though Lump sum contracts are considered ideal for smaller construction projects, they could lead to dispute and claims arising out of contract agreements. The most disputable issues are:

1. Unbalanced Bids

Certain projects need submission of payment applications using unit quantities and unit prices. In such a case, the contractor may produce an unbalanced bid by raising unit prices on such items required early in the building process like transportation and insurances and reducing unit price on materials which have to be used later.

2. Change Orders

In case of change order proposals suggested or received by the owner that may demand increased expenses, the rate quotation could lead to disagreements.

3. Changes related to Scope and Design

Based on construction procedures and past experience, the contractor can suggest design changes. Contract provisions should be able to explain how those alterations in plan will be addressed and who will bear the add-on expenses.

4. Compensation for Early Completion

Lump sum contracts may consist of provision for an early completion compensation for the contractor.

The above issues emphasize the fact that the fixed price provision in the contractual document of Lump-sum contract is far from being permanent and are very much liable to changes and alterations. Undeniably cost certainty is a major hiccup on any project and lump sum contracts are no different.

Types of Variations in Lump Sum Contracts

Lump sum contract allocates more risk to the contractor when compared to some other types of construction contracts because the process of tender preparation is more expensive for the contractor. Therefore, a clear mechanism has to be put in place to address varying conditions during the course construction by adding necessary provisions:

1. Variations

In a lump sum contract, even though the amount of work and its price are well defined, there is always scope for changes or up gradations. To cover such changes, agreements should include terms for contractors to go ahead with such design, material or quantity alteration without having to argue about expenses.

It’s essential that contracts include an efficient variation and valuation process.

2. Relevant events

This may include failure on the part of client to procure supplies or provide timely instructions to contractor or those events over which neither party have any control like inclement weather condition or natural disasters. In either case, such clauses should be included in the contracts that provide reimbursement for losses to contractor.

3. Provisional sum

This is usually applicable in cases where the client may not opt to pay for undefined work. That is why a provisional sum is included in the contract document as an estimate of the total cost of construction.

4. Fluctuations in Inflation

Sound provisions should be added to the contracts to suitably compensate contractors in case of inflations on projects especially those which last for a length of time. The reason being tenders are based on current price and contractor should be paid in case of price change that occur during the entire period.

5. There should be clear clauses that include payments to subcontractors and other suppliers.

Pothole repair technology

Future Pothole Repairing Machine
Future Road Repair Technology

An Introduction to Shell Structures: The Art and Science of Vaulting

An Introduction to Shell Structures:

The Art and Science of Vaulting

(PDF)

The art of building dome shell structures has given to the baroque for its assumed pompo been with us since ancient times. Current ex sity in glorifying curves. In practical terms amples in the Astrodome, the Superdome, such an attitude in design is clearly mani the Kingdome, and the Florida Suncoast fested in the present cityscapes that are to Dome stand to remind us of the counterpoint tally free of arches, domes, shells, and any they play to the Pantheon, S. Sophia, S. other form that is not rectilinear. Is this what Maria del Fiore, and St. Peter. The latter we really want-plans and elevations with may be thought of by some as being ancient only straight lines, ninety-degree angles, or, history, but they are present in the twentieth in some daring cases, forty-five-degree century and hence are a part of our present angles? It does not seem so. and future. Why do scholars continue to Similarly, the curricula in both civil engi study them? What can they teach us? A re neering and architecture in structures seem vival of interest in curvilinear structures is to ignore intentionally arches and vaults, lim under way, as the current examples just cited iting these subjects to graduate programs in thin-shell design as being a specialized eso testify. At the beginning of this century, under teric subject

How to calculate the cement, sand quantity for plastering?

HOW TO CALCULATE CEMENT, SAND QUANTITY FOR PLASTERING?

Following points should be remembered while calculating the quantity of cement, sand for plastering work.

1. For wall plastering, Cement : Sand = 1 : 6

2. For ceiling plastering,Cement : Sand = 1 : 4

3. Thickness of plaster should be in between 12-15 mm. If an additional coat is required then do not do it at one go.

4. Use good quality of cement & Sand.

5. Use measuring box (not head pan) for site mix.

We will calculate cement and sand for 100 m2 plastering area in 1:6 ratio and thickness of 12 mm.

Cement Mortar Required:

Plastering thickness = 12 mm

= 12/1000 = 0.012m

Volume of cement mortar required = ( Plastering Area x thickness )

= 100 m2 x 0.012m = 1.2 m3

(This is wet volume of cement mortar (after mixing water) but we need dry volume. To get dry volume consider 35% bulking of sand and 20% wastages

= 1.2 m3 x (1+0.2+0.35) (Rather than 35% sand bulkage and 20% wastage you can add 1.54 as constant)

= 1.86 m3

Cement : Sand = 1 : 6

Sum of ratio =( 1 + 6) = 7

∴ Cement required

= 1.86 x 1/7

= 0.265 m3

= 0.265/0.0347 ( 0.0347 m3 = 1 bag = 50 kg cement)

= 7.66 bags (≈ 8 Bags)

∴ Sand required

= 1.86 x 6/7

= 1.59 m3

Here we have calculated in Sq.m but you can also calculate it in Sq.ft.

Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis Professional 2018 [Multilanguage]

Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis Professional 2018 (x64) Multilanguage 

​Autodesk Inc., a world leader in 3D design software for entertainment, natural resources, manufacturing, engineering, construction, and civil infrastructure, announced the release of Robot Structural Analysis 2018. This software provides engineers with advanced BIM-integrated analysis and design tools to understand the behavior of any structure type and verify code compliance.

Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis Professional software provides structural engineers with advanced building analysis capabilities for large and complex structures. The structural analysis software offers a smoother workflow and interoperability with Autodesk Revit Structure software to extend the Building Information Modeling (BIM) process, enabling engineers to more quickly perform comprehensive analysis of a variety of structures.

Create structural models and perform structural analysis within Robot Structural Analysis Professional, and seamlessly transfer the model and results to AutoCAD Structural Detailing software to generate fabrication drawings. Within this ecosystem of structural engineering software, structural engineers can take advantage of an integrated workflow from design through analysis to fabrication.

What's New in Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis Professional 2018:

Simulation and Analyses

- You can perform calculations of models including RC columns and over 32 000 combinations.

- On computers with multicore processors, calculations of column reinforcement are performed faster. The acceleration is proportional to the number of cores. To perform calculations faster, the Parallel processing - multiprocessing option must be selected (a default setting). To access this option, select Tools Preferences Advanced.

Other Improvements

- In the RC design modules and the Connection Design module, the contents display correctly when you select the Medium or Larger option from the Display settings.

Fixed Issues

View the list of issues fixed in Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis Professional 2018 to learn the details.

About Autodesk

Autodesk helps people imagine, design and create a better world. Everyone-from design professionals, engineers and architects to digital artists, students and hobbyists-uses Autodesk software to unlock their creativity and solve important challenges.

Language: multilanguage

System Requirements: PC

Supported Operating Systems: Windows 7 SP1/8.1/10 

Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis Professional 2018 (x64) Multilanguage

CRACK

PASSWORD : th3civilengineer

Clean stubborn grime from grout with this easy DIY cleaner!

This DIY Grout Cleaner Will Make Your House Sparkly Clean

SUPPLIES

1/2 cup baking soda

1/4 cup hydrogen peroxide

1 tsp dish soap

Bowl

Cleaning sponge

INSTRUCTIONS

1. Combine ½ cup of baking soda, ¼ cup of hydrogen peroxide, 1 teaspoon of liquid dish soap, and stir well.

2. Use sponge to rub mixture into grout between tiles.

3. Wipe away with damp paper towels.

4. Enjoy your clean space!

Maximum bearing capacity of soil

WHAT IS MAXIMUM BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL?

The load of any structure is finally transmitted to the soil lying below the foundation of the structure. Hence it is essential to know the strength and behavior of the underlying soil.

BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL:

The maximum load per unit area which the soil can carry without any settlement or displacement is termed as bearing capacity of the soil. Bearing capacity of soil is determined by the following two methods:

1. Dropping weight method

2. Slowly applying load method.

ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL:

The minimum load on unit area causing failure is called the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil.

SAFE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL:

The maximum intensity of loading that the soil will safely carry without the risk of shear failure is called safe bearing capacity of the soil. It is obtained by dividing the ultimate bearing capacity by a certain factor of safety which is used in the design of foundation. The value of factor of safety varies from 2 to 3 depending upon the nature of the soil.

MAXIMUM SAFE BEARING CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL:

1. Soft, wet clay or muddy clay: 5,000 kg/m²

2. Soft clay: 10,000 kg/m²

3. Fine, loose and dry sand: 10,000 kg/m²

4. Black cotton soil: 15,000 kg/m²

5. Moist clay and sand clay Mixture: 15,000 kg/m²

6. Loose gravel: 25,000 kg/m²

7. Medium clay: 25,000 kg/m²

8. Medium, compact and dry sand: 25,000 kg/m²

9. Compact clay: 45,000 kg/m²

10. Compact sand: 45,000 kg/m²

11. Compact gravel: 45,000 kg/m²

12. Soft rocks: 45,000 kg/m²

13. Laminated rock such as sand stone & Lime stone: 165,000 kg/m²

14. Hard rocks such as granite, diorite, trap: 330,000 kg/m²

Plastic Road

What is Plastic Road?

((Improving the Durability and Lifespan of Roads))

Plastic is one of the most commonly used products and which can be easily recycled. The plastic materials that are often being recycled into bottles, containers, bags, toys, and much more. But now, many companies are attempting to recycle plastic into something much larger — Roads. The first company that came with such an innovative idea is Volker Wessels which is a famous construction firm that is preparing to build a Plastic Road in Rotterdam.

Advantages of using plastic in constructing roads:

1) The stronger road will increased the Marshall Stability Value

2) Have better resistance towards rainwater and water

3) No stripping and no potholes

4) Plastic roads increase binding and better bonding of the mix

5) You will have reduction in pores in collective and hence less rutting and raveling

6) No effect of radiation of UV

7) The strength of the road will be increased by 100%

8) The cost of road construction will also be decreased

9) The maintenance cost of the road will remain almost nil

10) Employment for unskilled laborers will be also be generated

Information about Solar Energy system for roof

Information about Solar Energy system for roof:

Solar energy is an eco-friendly alternative method of generating electricity. In simple terms, this process involves using the Sun’s rays (photons) to stimulate metal sheets in order to loosen electrons from the metal. These electrons then break free of the metal sheets and form a flow of electricity .These metal sheets are comprised of multiple layers of photovoltaic cells , which convert sunlight into electricity,linked together to form larger solar panels. These photovoltaic cells are often composed of silicon, which is a substance commonly used in microelectronics. These cells function by having one sheet of silicon being positively charged which is called the p-type, while the other is negatively charged, called the n-type .This results in a magnetic field across the cell. Due to this, when the sun strikes the side that is negatively charged (stocked with extra electrons), the electrons that are knocked loose are pushed across this magnetic field through a junction of the two sheets towards the positively charged sheet. The cell is also encased in an electrode which is where wiring and energy transfer take place. One more key component to the photovoltaic cell is the reflection-resistant film which allows the most sunlight to pass through to the silicon layers. 

A technical depiction of a solar cell’s construction can be seen in figure .

Cork Flooring

Cork Flooring

Cork is obtained from the cork oak tree. It is used as flooring material in the form of carpets. These carpets are noiseless and are required mainly in libraries, theaters etc. Cork tiles are also available which are made from high graded cork bar using compression in moldings.

TYPES OF PIPES COMMONLY USED IN WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

TYPES OF PIPES:

The types of pipes commonly used in water distribution system are described below.

1. CAST IRON PIPES:

Cast iron pipes or CI pipes are broadly utilized for distribution of water because they are less expensive, corrosion resistant, and long lasting. CI pipes are mainly produced by following four techniques.

• Horizontally cast ( MC ware pipes)
• Vertically cast ( Pit cast in sand molds)
• Centrifugally cast in sand lines molds spun type.
• Centrifugally cast in water cooled molds.

Uses of horizontally cast CI pipes are presently pretty much outdated, that’s why they are infrequently produced these days. Centrifugally cast pipes are most widely used because they have more grained dense structure and uniform thickness. Generally, CI pipes are 3-6 m long, so much heavy, and require extra care to avoid from damaging while transporting and creating connections.

2. STEEL PIPES:

Steel pipes are utilized in water mains circumstances where the pipes are going through very high pressure ( More than 7 kg/cm2) and required large diameter pipes. These pipes have greater strength and less weight than CI pipes. Satisfactory treatments should be given to maintain antagonistic climatic conditions.

3. GALVANIZED IRON PIPES:

Galvanized pipes are also known as GI pipes are fashioned steel pipes with zinc coating. GI pipes are mostly utilized for water supply and service connections.

4. COPPER PIPES:

Copper pipes are most commonly utilized in hot water supply establishment. Some features of this pipes are as following:

• They possess high tensile strength.
• They can be bent easily.
• Copper pipes can be used in thin wall.

Copper pipes are sometimes chromium plated to enhance their appearance and to match with the chromium plated water supply fittings.

5. POLYTHENE PIPES:

Polythene and PVC pipes are being utilized progressively nowadays for cold water supply inside and outside works. These pipes are lightweight, cheaper, corrosion resistant, and require no threading for making any connections.

Besides these, there are other pipes commonly used for water distribution such as asbestos cement (AC) pipes, reinforced concrete (RCC) pipes, prestressed reinforced concrete (PSC) pipes etc. The selection of the types of pipe for utilizing any purposes is adopted according to the design criteria, material availability, cost, and other comparative variables.

HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT

What is high alumina cement?

High alumina cement (HAC) is a special cement, manufactured by mixing of bauxite ( aluminum ore) and lime at a certain temperature. This cement is also known as calcium aluminum cement (CAC).

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HIGH ALUMINA CEMENTS [IS:6452-1989]:

Alumina (Al2O3) – 39%

Lime (CaO) – 38%

Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) – 10%

Silica (SiO2) – 6%

Ferrous Oxide (FeO) – 4%

APPLICATIONS OF HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT:

This cement is very suitable for under sea applications and sewer infrastructures.

It can be used in cold area where rapid strength development is required.

HAC is also used in refractory concretes where it requires more strength at very high temperature.

ADVANTAGES OF HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT:

High alumina cement is very reactive and has very high compressive strength.

It is more workable than ordinary portland cement.

The initial setting time of HAC is about to 3.5-4 hours, and the final setting time is about to 5 hours.

It is extremely resistant to chemical attack.

It induces more heat during the setting time, so it can not be affected by frost.

It is fire resistant.

DISADVANTAGES OF HAC:

The manufacturing cost of HAC is very high.

It loses relative strength in humid condition and high temperature.

TYPES OF BUILDINGS

TYPES OF BUILDINGS:

Depending upon the character of occupancy or the type of use, building can be classified into different categories as follows:

1. RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS:

These buildings include one or two private dwellings, apartment houses (flats), hotels, dormitories etc.

2. EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS:

These buildings include any building used for school, college or day care purposes involving assembly for instruction, education or recreation.

3. INSTITUTIONAL BUILDINGS:

These buildings include any building or part which is used for medical treatment etc. Such as Hospitals, nursing homes, orphanages, sanatoria, jails, prisons, mental hospitals etc.

4. ASSEMBLY BUILDINGS:

These buildings may include any building or part of a building where a group of people gathers for recreation, amusement, social, religious or such types of purposes such as theaters, assembly halls, exhibition halls, restaurants, museum, club rooms, auditoria etc.

5. BUSINESS BUILDINGS:

These shall include any building or part of a building which is used for business transactions, keeping records of accounts, town halls, city halls, court houses etc.

6. MERCANTILE BUILDINGS:

These shall include those buildings which are used for soap, market, stores, wholesale or retail.

7. INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS:

This types of building mainly used for manufacturing purposes. Here products or materials of all kinds and properties are fabricated, assembled or processed, for example, gas plants, refineries, mills, dairies etc.

8. STORAGE BUILDINGS:

These buildings are generally used for the storage or sheltering of goods, wares, or merchandise like warehouses, cold storages, garages, stables, transit sheds etc.

9. HAZARDOUS BUILDINGS:

These buildings include any building which is used for storage, handling, manufacture or processing of highly combustible explosive materials or products which are liable to burn with extreme rapidly which may produce poisonous fumes, building which is used for storage, handling or manufacturing highly corrosive, toxic, acid or other liquids or chemicals producing flame, fumes explosive etc.

Design of Joints in Steel and Composite Structures

DESIGN OF JOINTS IN STEEL AND COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures

Part 1-8 – Design of Joints

Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures

Part 1-1 – General rules and rules for buildings

Jean-Pierre Jaspart

Klaus Weynand

(Eccs Eurocode Design Manuals)

(2016-05-16)

This volume elucidates the design rules for connections in steel and composite structures which are set out in Eurocode 3 and 4. Numerous examples illustrate the application of the respective design rules.

Lifting concrete with foam

FOAM JACKING

Foam jacking is a fast, economical repair process for correcting settled and unstable concrete. From sidewalks to interstates, and everything in between, foam jacking is economical, fast and effective for economically correcting settlement and instability.

Virtual Reality for Construction

Paradoxically, Virtual Reality (VR) technologies are still lagging behind the visions that people have for their use. However, VR has already demonstrated its capacity to change the ways we design, make decisions about, and produce built environments.

Self healing concrete

self healing concrete

Self Compacting Concrete (SCC)

Here is the video of Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) also known as Self Consolidating Concrete. It is a highly flowable, non-segregating concrete that can spread into place, fill the formwork and encapsulate the reinforcement without any mechanical/external application of consolidation or compaction.

Revit Architecture 2017

This book is the most comprehensive book you will find AutoDesk Revit Architecture 2017. Covering all of the 2D concepts, it uses both metric and imperial units to illustrate the myriad drawing and editing tools for this popular application. Use the companion files to set up drawing exercises and projects and see all of the book’s figures in color. Revit Architecture 2017 includes over 100 exercises “mini-workshops,” that complete small projects from. concept through actual plotting. Solving all of the workshops will simulate the creation of three projects (architectural and mechanical) from beginning to end, without overlooking any of the basic commands and functions in Revit Architecture 2017.

Basic Principles of Steel Structures

Basic Principles of Steel Structures (PDF)

How to check sand quality in field?

HOW TO CHECK SAND QUALITY IN FIELD?

There are some useful tests that can be done in the field for checking the quality of sand utilized for construction. The following tests may be performed to determine the characteristics of sand.

FIELD TEST OF SAND:

1. Take a glass and add some water in it.

2. Add a few amount of sand in the glass. At that point, shake it vivaciously and permit it to settle. If there is clay present in the sand, an apparent layer will be formed at the top level of sand.

3. Mix the sand into sodium hydroxide or caustic soda solution to distinguish the presence of organic impurities. If organic impurities are present in the sand, the color of the solution will be turned into brown.

4. Now take a squeeze of sand and taste it. If it is salty that means salt is present in the sand.

5. Take little amount of sand in the hand, and then rub it against the fingers. If the fingers are recolored it means sand consists of some earthy materials.

6. The color of sand describes the cleanness of sand. The size and sharpness might be examined by touching and watching visually.

7. The sand may be examined by mechanical analysis to know its fineness, durability, void ratio etc.